However, it is unclear whether intrinsic suppression by itself can account for effects beyond reduced responses. Adaptation has been postulated to arise from recurrent circuit mechanisms or as a consequence of neuronally intrinsic suppression. These results likely indicate that the temporal dynamics of adaptation aftereffects of natural facial categories may be controlled by multiple temporally tuned mechanisms.Īdaptation is a fundamental property of sensory systems that can change subjective experiences in the context of recent information. Deadaptation only masked the effects of initial longer-lasting adaptation, and the spontaneous recovery of adaptation aftereffects was observed at the post-test stage for all four natural facial categories. The time courses of face adaptation aftereffects were measured using a top-up manner. In the deadaptation paradigm, participants adapted to a face with an extreme attribute (such as a 100% angry face in Experiment 1) for a relatively long duration, and then deadapted to a face with an opposite extreme attribute (such as a 100% happy face in Experiment 1) for a relatively short duration. To address the question, we used a deadaptation paradigm to examine whether the spontaneous recovery of natural facial aftereffects would emerge in four natural facial categories including variable categories (emotional expressions in Experiment 1 and eye gaze in Experiment 2) and invariable categories (facial gender in Experiment 3 and facial identity in Experiment 4). However, how temporally tuned mechanisms could control the temporal dynamics of natural face adaptation aftereffects remains unknown. Such face adaptation aftereffects have been widely found in many natural facial categories. Face adaptation improves our perceptual sensitivity toward subtle changes of facial structure, and plays a functional role in face processing (Oruç & Barton, 2011 Rhodes et al., 2010 Webster & MacLeod, 2011 Yang et al., 2011).Īdaptation to a natural face attribute such as a happy face can bias the perception of a subsequent face in this dimension such as a neutral face. This type of face aftereffects have widely been found in many different natural facial categories, including emotional expressions (e.g., Sou & Xu, 2019 Webster et al., 2004), eye gaze (e.g., Clifford, 2018 Jenkins, Beaver, & Calder, 2006 Seyama & Nagayama, 2006), gender (e.g., Cronin et al., 2017 Webster et al., 2004 Yokoyama et al., 2014), identity (e.g., Gao & Wang, 2020 Leopold et al., 2001 Rhodes et al., 2007), attractiveness (e.g., Fu et al., 2014 Hayn-Leichsenring et al., 2013 Rhodes et al., 2003), ethnicity (e.g., Davidenko et al., 2016 Webster et al., 2004 Yan et al., 2015), age (e.g., O'Neil & Webster, 2011 O'Neil et al., 2014 Schweinberger et al., 2010), and facial viewpoint (e.g., Fang & He, 2005 Nevi, Cicali, & Caudek, 2016 Ryu & Chaudhuri, 2006). Overall, our data reveals the orientation-, but not identity-tuning of body-gender aftereffects and points to the association between alterations of the malleability of body gender perception and social deficits. Finally, participants' sensitivity to body aftereffects was lower in individuals with greater communication deficits and deeper internalization of a male gender role. Furthermore, exposure to only upright bodies (Exp.2) biased the perception of upright, but not of inverted bodies, while exposure to both upright and inverted bodies (Exp.3) biased perception for both. We found that exposure to a distinctively female (or male) body makes androgynous bodies appear as more masculine (or feminine) and that these aftereffects were not specific for the individual characteristics of the adapting body (Exp.1). In three experiments, we investigated visual aftereffects for body-gender perception, testing for the tuning of visual aftereffects across different characters and orientation. However, since previous studies have mainly addressed manipulations of body size, the relative contribution of low-level retinotopic and/ or high-level object-based mechanisms is yet to be understood. Recently, it has been proposed that alterations of these aftereffects could play a role in body misperceptions. Protracted exposure to specific stimuli causes biased visual aftereffects at both low-and high-level dimensions of a stimulus.
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